Forensic

Sex Determination Through the Chemical Analysis of Fingerprints
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Sex Determination Through the Chemical Analysis of Fingerprints

Fingerprints have been a staple of forensic science for decades, providing a reliable (though not perfect) means of identifying suspects and placing people at crime scenes. In recent years, scientists have turned their attention towards exploring the additional information that could be extracted from fingerprints, in particular, chemical information for police intelligence. Fingerprints are composed of a mixture of chemical compounds both excreted through our skin and picked up from the environment.

Over the past decade, analytical chemists have shown that there may be sufficient chemical differences in the fingerprints of male and female donors to differentiate between the sexes. By studying these chemical differences, it may be possible to build a model capable of predicting the sex of a fingerprint donor based on the chemical compounds within the fingerprint.

In a recent study published in Forensic Chemistry, a method was developed to predict the sex of a donor based on the presence of peptides and proteins in fingermarks. The study used MALDI-MS (Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry), a type of mass spectrometry that enables both the measurement and identification of the chemical constituents in a material, in addition to the imaging of samples. MALDI has already been demonstrated to be a powerful technique in the chemical analysis of fingermarks, including imaging fingermarks and detecting the presence of blood and drugs in the mark. Much of the research in the area has been led by Professor Simona Francese of Sheffield Hallam University in the UK, senior author on this recent paper.

In the study, 199 participants donated multiple fingermarks, culminating in hundreds of samples for analysis. The fingermarks used for the analysis were natural, that is to say, deposited with no fingertip preparation beforehand. Many studies in the chemical analysis of fingerprints use “groomed” marks, in which the fingers are rubbed on the face or forehead in order to load the fingers with skin secretions prior to deposition. Although this provides rich samples for analysis, they are not applicable to fingermarks encountered in the real world.

After fingermark collection, MALDI-MS was then used to analyse the samples, focusing on the measurement of peptides and proteins in the deposited marks. To further mimic realistic scenarios, fingermarks were analysed both undeveloped and enhanced by common fingerprint visualisation techniques (white powder and vacuum metal deposition). Based on the chemical profiles produced, a predictive model was then constructed for the purpose of predicting the sex of the donor of unknown fingermarks, such as those that may be discovered at crime scenes.

The technique had a predictive power of up to 86%, demonstrating the potential to differentiate between male and female donors to a degree. There were, however, challenges in this study. Polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based contaminants, routinely used in cosmetics and personal care products, were commonly encountered, interfering with the detection of the actual targets of the analysis. Furthermore, the application of fingermark development techniques also caused interference, with many mass spectra being dominated by the gold nanoparticles used in the vacuum metal deposition method. This suggests the technique may only be truly applicable in the case of undeveloped fingermarks.

Although the technique has a high predictive power, it was not able to determine the sex of the donor in all cases, rendering it unsuitable for conclusively excluding suspects from an investigation based on their sex. However the method could be used to triage fingermarks, allowing investigators to establish which marks are of the greatest importance and which should be prioritised for further study, potentially speeding up forensic investigations.

 

Heaton & Bury et al. Investigating sex determination through MALDI MS analysis of peptides and proteins in natural fingermarks through comprehensive statistical modelling. 2020, Forensic Chemistry, DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2020.100271

Fingerprint Drug Testing to Detect Drug Use or Contact
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Fingerprint Drug Testing to Detect Drug Use or Contact

The detection and identification of drugs to demonstrate the use of illicit substances has long since been achieved through the collection and analysis of bodily fluids such as urine or blood. However with the inconvenience and invasiveness of collecting bodily fluids from people combined with the risks associated with handling biological fluids, scientists have examined alternative matrices for the detection of drug abuse.

In recent years researchers have demonstrated the possibility of detecting drugs in a less invasive manner, using only a fingerprint. In a recent study published in the Journal of Analytical Toxicology, researchers at the University of Surrey have developed a mass spectrometry-based technique to not only detect illicit drugs in fingerprints, but also differentiate between drug use and drug contact.

Fingerprints were collected from recent drug users undergoing treatment at a drug rehabilitation centre, specifically those who had taken heroin or cocaine in the last 24 hours. Fingerprints were collected both before and after thorough handwashing, with the aim of establishing whether drugs could be detected from both the surface of the hands but also in sweat excreted by the participants. Fingerprint samples were also collected from non-drug users who had simply handled heroin to further establish the detectable differences between those who have used or handled drugs. The fingerprints collected were analysed by liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry, with a focus on both the drugs and their metabolites (for instance 6-monoacetylmorphine, a compound formed in the body following heroin use).

The experiment successfully detected heroin or its metabolites in every scenario, even if an individual had washed their hands prior to fingerprint collection. However in some instances, the process of hand-washing removed all detectable traces of the drugs, such as in the case of morphine, acetylcodeine and noscapine. Importantly, the technique was able to distinguish between those who had handled illicit drugs and those who had actually taken them, due to the presence of metabolites only formed in the body following drug use. Furthermore, the research demonstrated that it was also possible to detect heroin in the fingerprints of someone who had simply shaken hands with another person who had handled heroin. This highlights an essential factor should such techniques ever become operational in the detection of drug use, stressing the importance of handwashing prior to fingerprint collection to ensure any drugs detected are the result of drug use rather than inadvertent contact with illicit drugs.

The ability to detect drugs in fingerprint could aid legal investigations in a number of ways. Firstly, by demonstrating drug use in known individuals through the analysis of their fingerprints. And secondly, by analysing fingerprints recovered from crime scenes to indicate a person of interest has recently used or handled illicit drugs, potentially guiding police investigations. The full study was published in the Journal of Analytical Toxicology.

 

Catia Costa, Mahado Ismail, Derek Stevenson, Brian Gibson, Roger Webb, Melanie Bailey, Distinguishing between Contact and Administration of Heroin from a Single Fingerprint using High Resolution Mass Spectrometry, Journal of Analytical Toxicology. https://doi.org/10.1093/jat/bkz088

Discovering Donor Characteristics from Bloodstains with Infrared Spectroscopy
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Discovering Donor Characteristics from Bloodstains with Infrared Spectroscopy

From interpreting the incident to pinpointing the perpetrator, the presence of blood at a crime scene can provide clues vital to solving a crime.  Since the advent of DNA profiling in the 1980s, police have been able to use DNA to link suspects to crime scenes, making the detection and collection of biological evidence more important than ever before. However successful DNA profiling relies on a positive match with either a DNA profile from a suspect or one stored in a database. With nothing to compare a profile to, the DNA is of limited use and the trail may quickly run cold.

But what if investigators could gain even more information from a bloodstain at a crime scene? What if it were possible to rapidly figure out whether the donor was male or female, or establish their race? And all of this without shipping samples back to the lab.

New research conducted at the University at Albany in New York has demonstrated that it may be possible to establish some individual donor characteristics in a matter of minutes.

Past research has already demonstrated that the biochemical composition of blood differs between males and females and individuals of different races. But the ability to obtain this information on-site at the crime scene in a matter of minutes could change the way body fluids are processed. In a recent study, Prof. Igor Lednev and his team applied a technique known as attenuated total reflection Fourier transform-infrared (ATR FTIR) spectroscopy to blood analysis, with the aim of establishing whether characteristics such as sex and race can be determined from bloodstains.

FTIR is an analytical technique capable of providing information about a material’s chemical information. In brief, the device directs infrared radiation towards the sample. Some of this radiation is absorbed by the material, and some passes through. The sample’s absorbance of this light at different wavelengths is measured and used to determine the material’s chemical information. After analysis a spectrum is produced, which acts as a kind of molecular ‘fingerprint’ of the sample. The different features in the spectrum relate to the different chemical components in the sample.

Infrared spectra were produced by analysing the blood of 30 donors (a mixture of male and females of Caucasian, African American and Hispanic racial origin). From this, researchers could observe any differences occurring between blood from male and females, and blood from members of different races. Using this data, the researchers built a model capable of classifying samples based on their chemical profile. By taking the chemical profile of an unknown bloodstain and comparing it with a model containing bloodstains from numerous different groups, the model can predict the likely classification (i.e. whether the donor was male or female and which racial group they belong to). In this study, it correctly classified bloodstains around 90% of the time.

Using infrared-based techniques has a number of advantages over other methods of analysis. As the technique simply necessitates the direction of light towards the bloodstain, the technique is non-destructive. Inevitably this is perfect for criminal investigations – destroying the evidence is never ideal. IR spectroscopy is also amenable to portability, lending itself well to on-the-go analysis at crime scenes and so potentially saving a lot of time by avoiding sending unnecessary samples back to the lab for analysis.

Although only a pilot study, this research has demonstrated the possibility of establishing donor characteristics through the rapid and non-destructive analysis of bloodstains. The ability to determine features such as sex and race would enable police to significantly narrow down the search for suspects or victims, ultimately preserving valuable time and money. Furthermore, the ability of FTIR to non-destructively analyse evidence on-site renders it an ideal tool for forensic analysis. Inevitably a great deal more research will be necessary, and if the technique ever becomes operational, it would be years before such technology and methods were suitable for deployment to crime scenes and use as evidence in criminal trials.

 

Mistek et al. Phenotype profiling for forensic purposes: nondestructive potentially on scene attenuated total reflection Fourier transform-infrared (ATR FT-IR) spectroscopy of bloodstains. Forensic Chemistry. 2019, In Press.

 

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The Smell of Death: Confirming Decomposition using Volatiles in the Air

Odour mortis, or the ‘smell of death’, refers to the chemicals released from the body during decomposition. Renowned forensic anthropologist Arpad Vass, who has studied the chemical changes occurring in the body after death for many years, recently shared the details of a particularly interesting scenario. The article, published in the May 2019 issue of Forensic Science International, details a fascinating case in which the occurrence of human decomposition was demonstrated based solely on chemical compounds in the air for the first time, without any human remains actually being found at the scene. The article doesn’t specify suspect or victim details, but anyone familiar with the case will recognise it instantly.

First, a brief introduction. In 2008, a woman was charged with the murder of her daughter, allegedly storing the victim’s body in the boot of her car for several days before disposing of the remains and dumping the car. Police had initially been alerted to the incident by the suspect’s parents, who had picked up their daughter’s abandoned car and noticed a foul decomposition-like odour coming from the vehicle. Coupled with the fact they had not seen their granddaughter in several weeks, the suspect’s mother promptly called 911.

The police soon took possession of the car and agreed that the scent of decomposition was emanating from the vehicle. Numerous cadaver dogs, specifically trained to detect odours from decaying bodies, alerted to the back of the car, further suggesting some kind of decomposing remains had been stored in the boot of the car. Fly pupae were also discovered. Entomological evidence is frequently associated with decomposing human remains, with flies and various other insects known to visit corpses to feed or lay eggs. Although no human remains were found in the car, several weeks later the body of the missing girl was found in a wooded area near the suspect’s home, and the case promptly turned into a murder investigation, with the victim’s mother as the prime suspect. However with minimal physical evidence linking the body to the suspect’s car, law enforcement turned to a somewhat unconventional tool to aid their investigation.

Various pieces of evidence were recovered from the vehicle, including segments of carpet, scrapings from the tyre wells, and various pieces of rubbish found in the car. Interestingly, investigators also collected some air samples from the boot of the car. Air can be sampled from remote locations using a technique that utilises air pumps to draw in gaseous analytes from the environment and capture them in a sorbent trap. This collection of trapped compounds can then be transported to a laboratory for analysis. In this case, about 35L of air was collected from the vehicle into a type of sorbent tube, then analysed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). GC/MS is a well-established analytical technique, allowing scientists to separate the individual chemicals in a mixture and identify those components. You can read more about how mass spectrometry works here.

This process allowed researchers to figure out exactly which volatile chemicals were present in the suspect’s vehicle and establish whether these are everyday compounds likely to be found in a car, or if they had some other source.

In the years leading up to this case a great deal of research had been conducted at the University of Tennessee’s Anthropological Research Facility. At this facility researchers were investigating, among other things, the odours produced during the decomposition of a human body. The odours created during this process are the result of volatile compounds produced as the body decomposes, and research has demonstrated that hundreds of individual chemical components are formed during this complex process. As part of research at the university, researchers had constructed a vast database of hundreds of chemicals detected during the process of human decomposition, including the different decomposition stages at which those chemicals appear. By comparing the chemicals detected in the vehicle with those stored in the database, it was possible to identify compounds known to be produced during the decomposition process. There was an 80% match between the compounds detected in the boot of the car and those chemicals considered to be relevant to human decomposition. Furthermore, unusually high levels of chloroform were also detected in the boot of the car.

The results from the air samples collected and chemical extracts from various other artefacts in the car led the researcher to conclude that there was a very high likelihood of a decomposition event occurring in the boot of the car. Many of the compounds detected in the vehicle could only be logically explained by the presence of decomposing remains.

Despite these findings (and various other pieces of evidence presented in court), the jury reached a verdict of not guilty for the charge of murder. Not too surprising an outcome, considering the use of air analysis to detect decomposition had not previously been used in a legal investigation. However in closing arguments, the defence stated that the victim had in fact been placed in the vehicle for transport (claiming the victim’s death had been accidental), ultimately confirming the results of the analysis.

 

Vass, A. A. Death is in the air: confirmation of decomposition without a corpse. Forensic Sci. Int. (2019). doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2019.05.005

Vass, A. A. Odor mortis. Forensic Sci. Int. 222, 234–241 (2012).

 

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Interview with Lecturer in Forensic Science Dr Kayleigh Sheppard

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Dr Kayleigh Sheppard works as a lecturer in forensic science at Liverpool John Moores University.

What is your current job role and what does this entail?

I currently work as a lecturer in Forensic Science at Liverpool John Moores University. My role is divided between lecturing undergraduate and postgraduate students, supervising undergraduate and MSc research projects and conducting research. I teach students across a range of undergraduate courses including BSc Forensic Science, BSc Forensic Anthropology and BSc Policing with Forensics, as well as postgraduate students on the MSc Forensic Bioscience course. Across these courses, I deliver a range of lectures and practical sessions focusing on topics such as Crime Scene Investigation and Forensic Methods with a particular focus on the photography of crime scenes and the evidence contained within them. Photography techniques covered include crime scene photography using natural light and flash, and more advanced photographic methods such as oblique lighting, alternate light source photography and automated 360◦ photography. I introduce the topics and theoretical principles of each topic to the students through lectures and workshops and then give the students hands on experience and the opportunity to develop their practical skills for each of the techniques through practical classes.

The practical classes delivered consist of fingermark enhancement, recovery and comparison, footwear mark recovery, evidence packaging techniques and crime scene documentation and photography. In addition, the students put together everything they have learnt throughout the semester and demonstrate their crime scene investigation techniques using simulated crime scenes that we are able to mock up within our crime scene houses. I supervise a range of student projects at both undergraduate and masters level which investigate advanced photographic methods of crime scenes, using 360-degree photography or mobile technology.

What initially attracted you to your particular field of research?

I have always had an interest and passion for the sciences, particularly biology and chemistry and knew that my future career would be in a scientific field. Whilst at school I was a keen problem solver and enjoyed reading crime and true crime novels. The combination of these traits led me to investigate a potential career in forensic science and so I started my BSc in Forensic Science at Staffordshire University. Throughout the course I was particularly interested in the crime scene aspects and envisaged myself going on to work as a crime scene investigator in the future. Upon completion of my course I had the opportunity to undertake a placement with Staffordshire Police. The placement allowed me to put my knowledge from my degree into practice, alongside crime scene investigators, whilst also providing me with the opportunity to conduct a research project. This project focused on my interest in crime scene investigations whilst incorporating emerging technologies- another interest of mine. The project was entitled “Next generation crime scene recording and forensic data use within criminal investigations”. The project was so well received by the Forensic staff that I wanted to pursue this area further and applied for a PhD investigating the use of 360-degree panoramic photography in a forensic context at Staffordshire University.

Alongside my PhD I was able to teach undergraduate students, introduce them to 360◦ camera technology, and provide them with hands on experience using the technology. The ability to apply my research into the curriculum to enhance the students learning sparked my interest in academia. An academic position provides the best of both worlds, allowing me to pass on my knowledge and experience to the students and teach them about forensic science, whilst also allowing me to continue to pursue my own research avenues. It is very rewarding to teach the students about modern and emerging technologies to assist with criminal investigations and to see their enthusiasm about a topic they may not have been introduced to before. The best part about being a lecturer is having the ability to teach students about topics they are unfamiliar with and pass on that knowledge. The most gratifying part of my job is when a student does not understand a topic or does not enjoy it, but through explanation and discussion using different learning techniques, the students understand the topic and begin to enjoy it.

Can you tell us about the research you’re currently involved in?

Most of the research that I conduct investigates the use of 360◦ panoramic photography for documenting and presenting crime scenes. At first, the research sought to validate the technique, regarding its accuracy for taking measurements at a scene. The research has begun to adapt the technology to answer specific research questions, which may aid crime scene investigators at the crime scene, by adapting the technology to make it do something that it could not do before.  For example, the 360◦ camera has been adapted to include alternate light sources for the detection of biological fluids, which are invisible to the naked eye, to simultaneously detect and document them in situ at a crime scene. Further research has also looked into the extent to which modern technologies for documenting crime scenes have been utilised for the presentation of evidence in the courtrooms and the factors that may be affecting the use in courtrooms.

The use of alternate light sources has also branched into other research avenues within the forensic field. Current research being conducted investigates the importance of cleanliness and prevention of cross contamination within Sexual Assault Referral Centres (SARC). The issues with identifying contamination in SARC environments is that in order to ensure cleanliness, the contaminants would ideally be visible.  Many biological fluids are invisible to the naked eye and therefore we cannot see them – so how do we know whether they are present on a surface or not? Most biological fluids fluoresce under specific wavelengths of light and enable them to be visualised. Research currently being conducted is seeking to determine the effectiveness of a SARCS-LED light source (CopperTree Forensics Ltd.) for identifying human blood, semen, saliva and vaginal secretions in small volumes (less than 1 μl) on a variety of surfaces typically encountered in SARC facilities. A SARCS-LED enables staff to ‘see’ biological traces, so provides a more targeted forensic clean. This layered approach alongside current ATP testing, and improved cleaning methods, can help to deliver a more thorough service. Using such a light source to identify biological fluids or contamination should enable a more effective cleaning protocol to be employed within SARC facilities, providing a more robust anti-contamination process which is in line with the Forensic Regulator expectations.

Research Figure

Semen and vaginal secretions deposited onto a white vinyl surface. Left – observed under natural light and the biological fluids are not visible to the naked eye. Right – observed under a blue SARCS-LED (445 nm wavelength) and demonstrating biological fluid fluorescence.

What are some of the biggest challenges in your area of research?

Academia can be a challenging place to work and trying to make sure that you maintain the knowledge of the forensic science field whilst it is continually updating can be challenging and often involves lots of reading to stay current, as well as attending training courses and conferences. High profile criminal court cases in forensic science are particularly interesting as they demonstrate to the students the importance and real world impact of their degree and the work they will be conducting in the field, so it is important to stay on top of these as well. At such an early stage in my academic career, being only 26, I felt as if there was a lot of pressure to prove myself worthy. As a result, I take advantage of every opportunity that is presented to me to further my knowledge and experience. It can be challenging to maintain a balance of lecturing, creating engaging and interesting sessions for the students, whilst continuing to conduct research and publish within the field. What keeps me going is my passion and enthusiasm for the subject area and the fact that I can shape the minds of the future.

Finally, do you have any advice for young scientists eager to pursue a career in your field of work?

For any individuals who want to pursue a career as a forensic scientist and get involved with any area of forensic science, make sure that you know what to expect. If you are simply going into this field because of your love for CSI: Crime Scene Investigation on the television that is not enough. The field of forensic science is not always as glamourous as it is often portrayed in the media, and some of the analysis techniques are not always conducted at the drop of a hat. However, saying that, forensic science is such an interesting and exciting field that is constantly evolving – no two days will ever be the same.

If you are interested in pursuing a career in this area you will need to make yourself stand out from the crowd. Over the past few years, this is a field which has become extremely competitive and you need to be able to demonstrate that you are a more suitable candidate than everyone else – what makes you different, what makes you stand out? In order to do this I would highly recommend getting any work experience that you can within the area. Working within criminal investigations can be tricky with active casework, but you do not know unless you ask. Some universities have partnerships with the local police forces so make sure to take advantage of any opportunities they can offer you. If this is not possible, try to get experience in laboratories to demonstrate your ability to follow protocols, work to standard operating procedures and avoid contamination. Alternatively, you could volunteer as a special constable within the police or assist within other police departments. Many of the skills that you obtain from these experiences can be transferred into the forensic field and more importantly demonstrates your commitment to enhancing your knowledge and skill set.

Website: LJMU Kayleigh Sheppard

Twitter: @Kay_Sheppard1

 

Detecting Homemade Bombs & Explosives in Sweat
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Detecting Homemade Bombs & Explosives in Sweat

Improvised explosive devices (IEDs) are often used in the implementation of terrorist attacks, for instance the 2005 London underground bombings, the suicide bomb attack during a concert in Manchester, and the 2015 Paris attacks. Unfortunately the components required for building these devices are commercially available and the bombs relatively easy to construct.

Many explosives leave a characteristic trace after being handled or detonated, and it is essential that investigators can rapidly identify the components used in homemade explosives. Furthermore, the ability to trace the explosives back to particular individuals and terrorist cells is essential in preventing future attacks. Unfortunately effectively detecting and tracing explosives and explosive precursors can prove difficult. On top of this, after the production and implementation of IEDs, it can be difficult to prove a suspects’ involvement in bomb construction.

Researchers at King’s College London and Northumbria University have been working on developing new ways to detect homemade explosives.

The newly developed approach, recently published in the journal Analytica Chimica Acta, uses a technique known as ion chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry (IC-HRMS) to separate and detect chemical components. By applying the technique to compounds commonly encountered in the analysis of explosive residues, the method was shown to be effective in detecting a large number of components used to make bombs, capable of detecting just trace amounts of the chemicals faster than previous techniques.

Upon developing this method, the team of researchers then demonstrated that the approach could be applied to the analysis of human sweat, with the aim of indicating an individual has recently handled explosives. Participants were made to handle Pyrodex powder, a black powder propellant used in firearm cartridges. After handling the powder for a few minutes, palm sweat and fingermark samples were then collected at numerous timepoints over several hours. Analytes related to the explosive material were readily detected using the method. The real-world implementation of this technique could help prove contact between a suspect and explosive material or explosive precursors.

 

Gallidabino et al. Targeted and non-targeted forensic profiling of black powder substitutes and gunshot residue using gradient ion chromatography – high resolution mass spectrometry (IC-HRMS). Analytica chimica acta. 2019, In Press.

Developing Fingerprints on Metals to Aid Knife & Gun Crime Investigations
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Developing Fingerprints on Metals to Aid Knife & Gun Crime Investigations

Fingerprints are something of a staple in forensic science. For over 100 years we have used the unique details of fingerprints to identify victims and suspects, and draw connections between people and objects to place suspects at crime scenes. Fingermarks are encountered on all kinds of surfaces that can have an effect on how easy it is to visualise the mark and for how long the mark persists. As a result, the market is flooded with products for developing fingerprints, from powders to glues to chemical reagents.

Despite the options available, some surfaces, for instance metals, still prove somewhat tricky when it comes to developing prints. This is due to various factors, such as how the chemical results in the fingermark and developing reagents may react with the surface. This is obviously problematic when trying to obtain fingerprints from knives and firearms, a matter of particular importance right now worldwide. For years researchers have been examining methods of improving the detection of fingerprints on metals, including metal vapour deposition and different chemical reagents, but reliable techniques are still few and far between.

Researchers at the University of Nottingham and University of Derby in the UK are using analytical chemistry to solve this problem. Using a technique called Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry, or ToF-SIMS, researchers have developed a way of producing images of fingerprints of various metal surfaces. ToF-SIMS utilises an ion beam which is passed along the surface of the sample, causing ions (charged chemical components) to be emitted from the sample. These are then analysed by mass spectrometry and the results used to produce a kind of map of the surface.

Researchers deposited fingermarks on various types of commonly-encountered metals, such as stainless steel and aluminium, and studied the effects of time on the ability to visualise the prints. Cyanoacrylate (or superglue) fuming, a traditional technique particularly popular when analysing metal surfaces, proved to be unreliable, with the print’s quality degrading rapidly or disappearing completely in just a matter of days. However using this new mass spectrometry-based approach, fingermarks could be visualised in samples up to 26 days old, a vast improvement on traditional methods.

The high-resolution images produced sufficient detail to not only observe ridge detail in the marks, but even the shape and position of individual sweat pores. Furthermore, and perhaps most importantly in a forensic context, the technique is non-destructive. Current methods of visualising fingerprints tend to involve adding a powder or chemical to the print, inevitably altering and potentially contaminating it. But the use of ToF-SIMS ensures the print remains intact, so further development or analysis techniques can be employed if required.

By enabling the visualisation of fingerprints that previous techniques may have failed to reveal, this method has the potential to not only aid investigators as they face the ongoing rise of knife and gun crime, but could also be applied to cold cases. However it is important to note that fingermarks deposited as part of research are not always indicative of real-world samples. In reality the fingerprints we leave behind can vary greatly in the amount of material deposited and the type of material being left behind. Traces of anything handled can be deposited in the fingermark, adding many potential variables to the real-world applicability of this kind of work. Despite this, the study demonstrates a promising new technique for the development of fingermarks on metals, which could have great implications in the investigation of violent gun and knife crimes.

 

Thandauthapani et al. Exposing latent fingermarks on problematic metal surfaces using time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy. Science & Justice. 2018, 58(6).

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Interview with Forensic Taphonomist Professor Shari Forbes

What is your current job role and what does this entail?

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Forensic taphonomist Professor Shari Forbes.

I am a Canada 150 Research Chair in Forensic Thanatology and the Director of the Secure Site for Research in Thanatology (SSRT). The SSRT represents the first human taphonomy facility in Canada and is the only place in this distinct climate where we can study the process of human decomposition through body donation. My role is to lead and conduct research at this facility, specifically in the field of forensic thanatology and decomposition chemistry. This role also involves engaging collaboratively with our external partners who can benefit from the research and training we conduct at the facility, notably police, forensic services, search and rescue teams, military, human rights organisations, and anyone involved in death investigations.

What initially attracted you to your particular field of research?

I have always had a passion for science and knew that I wanted to pursue a career in a scientific field where I could clearly see the impact of my work. When I was in high school, I enjoyed reading crime novels and probably understood what forensic science entailed better than most people (this was before the advent of CSI, Bones, NCIS, etc.!). My love of science combined with my interest in criminal investigations naturally led to pursuing a career in this field. At the time, there was only one university in Australia that offered a forensic science degree so the decision of where and what to study was relatively easy. Although chemistry wasn’t my strongest subject at school, I enjoyed the degree because it applied chemistry to forensic science and in this way, I could understand how my skills would help police investigations.

Can you tell us about the research you’re currently involved in?

My research focuses on the chemical processes of soft tissue decomposition and the by-products released into the environment. This can include compounds released into air, water, soil, textiles, or anything surrounding the body. The majority of my research at the moment focuses on the release of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) into the air to better understand the composition of decomposition odour. Although this is not pleasant work, it is very important to understand the key compounds used by cadaver-detection dogs for locating human remains. If we can identify the key VOCs and determine when they are present, we can enhance the training and success of cadaver-detection dogs in complex environments such as mass disasters.

You were heavily involved in the establishment of the Australian Facility for Taphonomic Experimental Research. What were some of the greatest challenges in this and how has the facility since developed?

It took approximately 3.5 years to establish AFTER from the day we started planning it to the day it opened in January 2016. I have since realised this is not that long compared to some of the other facilities that are currently operating but there were challenges and hurdles that we faced along the way. In Australia, establishing a human taphonomy facility essentially requires three things: 1) an organisation willing to lead and support it; 2) a body donation program; and 3) accessible land that can be used for taphonomic research. We were fortunate that the University of Technology Sydney (UTS) had these three things and we also had the financial and in-kind support of all of our partners including academic institutions, police services and forensic laboratories. Once we had this support and made the decision to proceed, we still needed to seek approval from our local council to use the land for this purpose; apply for funding to build the facility; and apply to have the facility licenced to hold human remains for the purposes of taphonomic research and training. Thankfully, everyone we engaged with was highly supportive of the facility and willing to work with us to ensure we followed all legislation and regulations. We also ensured we had a strong communication plan to raise awareness with the general public about the benefits of these facilities and how important the research is to assist in the resolution of death investigations.

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The Australian Facility for Taphonomic Experimental Research

Since opening, we have been amazed by the general interest in AFTER and the number of people wanting to donate their body. We have also increased our partnerships to benefit more police and forensic services as well as others services such as the cemetery industry. We are currently planning to provide more training opportunities, particularly relating to disaster victim recovery and identification, and to establish more AFTER facilities across Australia to better represent the diverse climates experienced across the country.

You recently left the University of Technology Sydney to relocate to Canada. How will your role and research be changing as you make this move?

I was honored to be the Director of AFTER and it was a difficult decision to leave Australia. However, I recognise the importance of these facilities and the need to establish them in other countries so when I was asked to open Canada’s first human taphonomy facility, it was an opportunity I could not turn down. My experience in Australia has already assisted greatly in establishing the facility in Quebec and we will certainly be able to open the facility much more rapidly as a result. Like in Australia, we hope it acts as a template for future facilities across Canada since this country also has very diverse climates. In reality, neither my role nor my research will change significantly. The greatest change will be the climate and its impact on the process of decomposition!

Finally, do you have any advice for young scientists eager to pursue a career in your field of work?

It sounds like a cliché, but I always encourage students to pursue a career in a field they are passionate about. If you had told me 20 years ago that I would being leading not one, but two ‘body farms’ I would never have believed it (especially after just reading Patricia Cornwell’s novel that gave these facilities that name!). But I knew I was passionate about studying a science that was deeply applied and had a clear impact on society. I had no idea where it would lead me or even if I would get a job in the field, but without that passion, I would not have been motivated to do any of the things I have done; namely: complete my degree, continue on with a PhD, do research in decomposition chemistry, and ultimately become an academic so that I could continue my passion of conducting forensic taphonomy research. So if you are going to do something for the next fifty years, make sure it is something you love doing!

Find out more on the Secure Site for Research in Thanatology website.

 

This is Part 17 of our series of interviews with forensic professionals. If you’re a forensic scientist (academic or industry) or a crime scene investigator and would like to be part of this series of interviews, get in touch by emailing locardslabblog[at]gmail.com.

Drug Detection at Your Fingertips: Illicit Drugs in Fingerprint Sweat
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Drug Detection at Your Fingertips: Illicit Drugs in Fingerprint Sweat

Researchers have developed a new tool for the rapid detection of a number of illicit drugs using only the sweat of an individual’s fingerprint.

Typically, the procedure to test for drugs in human beings necessitates the collection of blood or urine and laboratory-based analysis by gas or liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry. Unfortunately these standard methods are somewhat invasive, require potentially time-consuming laboratory-based analysis, and use complex pieces of analytical instrumentation requiring a trained operator to use. They are inevitably unsuitable for rapid, in-situ screening of potential drug users.

Researchers at the University of East Anglia and Intelligent Fingerprinting Ltd (a spin-out company from the university) have been working on a method of conducting simple, rapid drug analysis using sweat from a person’s finger. The technique has been developed to detect four classes of drugs – cannabis, cocaine, amphetamines and opiates, with cannabis being detected based on the presence of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cocaine on the presence of benzoylecgonine, and opiates via the detection of morphine.

The finger of an individual is firmly pressed onto the Drug Screening Cartridge. This is then filled with a buffer solution before insertion into the reader for analysis. Capable of detecting drugs down to the picogram level, the system is a fluorescence-based lateral flow competition assay containing four drug-bovine serum albumin conjugate lines on a nitrocellulose test strip.  In short, when a sample is introduced to the test strip, fluorescently-tagged antibodies pass over the conjugate lines. As these antibodies are specific to each drug class of interest, if that drug is present they will bind to the drug. At the end of the test, a fluorescence signal is measured. If none of the four drug classes were present, a maximum fluorescence signal will be obtained. However if any drugs were present to bind with the antibodies, there will be a decrease in the fluorescence signal proportional to the drug concentration. Within about 10 minutes, the device then gives a simple pass/fail response, requiring no specialist knowledge or excessive training to operate and interpret the results.

Furthermore, the technique has also been demonstrated to be effective when applied to the deceased. Researchers worked with a number of UK-based coroners to obtain fingerprint sweat samples from 75 deceased individuals. The most common drug detected was opiates, which is a logical finding considering the number of terminally ill patients who are prescribed morphine during palliative care.

In order to compare the new technique with those typically employed in the detection of drugs in human beings, analysis of blood samples was conducted by LC-MS-MS. The results between the two methods correlated well, with the accuracy between DSC of fingerprints and LC-MS-MS of blood being 88-97%, depending on the drug. This demonstrates the effectiveness of the method and its ability to stand up to existing techniques, though there are inevitably some shortcomings. Authors of the study have stated that there are known accuracy issues with lateral flow measurement devices, thus this new technology should be used as a presumptive screening method prior to confirmation by mass spectrometry. Furthermore, the range of target drugs is clearly currently limited, though future development could no doubt enable other classes of drug to be included.

Full details of the findings can be found in the Journal of Analytical Toxicology.

 

References

Hudson, T. Stuchinskaya, S. Ramma, J. Patel, C. Sievers, S. Goetz, S. Hines, E. Menzies and D. A. Russell, J. Anal. Toxicol., 2018, 6–10.

Forensic Magazine. Fingerprint Drug Screen Test Works on the Living and Deceased. [Available online] https://www.forensicmag.com/news/2018/10/fingerprint-drug-screen-test-works-living-and-deceased

 

Forensic Failures: Philip Scott Cannon & Bullet Analysis Blunders
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Forensic Failures: Philip Scott Cannon & Bullet Analysis Blunders

In December 2009, Philip Scott Cannon of Polk County, Oregon was released from prison after his conviction was found to be based on ‘junk science’. By this time, he had served over 10 years.

The story of his wrongful imprisonment began on 23rd November 1998, when Bimla Boyd noticed that the mobile home of a neighbour appeared to be on fire. Upon investigating, she discovered the bodies of three people; Jason Kinser, his girlfriend Suzan Osborn, and Celesta Graves. All three victims had been shot. Boyd promptly called the police, and a murder investigation ensued.

Boyd stated that earlier in the day she had noticed a maroon van parked nearby, a van which happened to belong to Philip Scott Cannon. Around the same time, local men Jeremy Olsen and Larry Weaver were on their way to deliver water to the victims’ trailer. Upon arrival at the trailer, Olsen and Weaver claimed that they were met by Cannon, who was said to be “acting strangely”. Cannon informed the men that they should not go into the trailer because Jason Kinser was upset and in the midst of a heated argument with an unknown Hispanic man. Olsen and Weaver subsequently left without entering the trailer. Based on this eyewitness testimony and the fact that Cannon owned the maroon van spotted nearby, he soon became the prime suspect.

Credit: Polk County Itemizer-Observer

When questioned by police, Cannon maintained his innocence and claimed Kinser had called him over to give an estimate for fixing a plumbing problem in the trailer, after which he promptly left when Kinser began arguing with another man. However the police had a very different impression of the situation, believing that Cannon was a meth user and Kinser his dealer. Further suspicion fell on Cannon when a prisoner, Steven Brobston, informed police that he had entrusted Cannon with a box containing $16,000 to be used to support Celesta Graves, Brobston’s girlfriend and one of the victims. With the circumstantial evidence mounting, investigators searched Cannon’s home, finding the lockbox but no sign of the money. They did however stumble upon a number of weapons and ammunition. This was sufficient to arrest Cannon, who was taken into custody on 3rd December and charged with three counts of aggravated murder and the illegal possession of a firearm.

During the trail, Olsen, Weaver and Boyd were all called upon to recount their experiences of seeing Cannon near the trailer on the day of the murder. Of course this evidence was purely circumstantial, so an expert witness was called upon to study the bullets collected from the crime scene and those recovered from the suspect’s home. Michael Conrady of Oregon State University’s radiation center conducted a metallurgic analysis of the bullets known as comparative bullet lead analysis. This technique involves the application of various analytical techniques, but primarily atomic emission spectroscopy, to bullet composition determination. The method aims to establish the composition of metals in the bullet, such as copper, tin, antimony and silver, and compare profiles to ascertain whether two bullets are chemically identical. Based on this analysis, Conrady testified that the bullets from the crime scene and those from Cannon’s home were chemically identical, therefore Cannon’s ammunition was used to kill the three victims. However the weapons found in Cannon’s home were not connected to the murders, nor did police establish a reasonable motive for the triple homicide. Despite these shortcomings, on 28th February 2000, Cannon was found guilty and sentenced to three life sentences with no parole.

At the time of Cannon’s trial, the use of comparative bullet lead analysis was already under scrutiny, with some believing the reliability of the technique was unfounded. In 2005, the national Academy of Science discredited the technique and deemed it ‘junk science’, and soon after the FBI abandoned the use of this method altogether. As Cannon’s conviction was so heavily reliant on the bullet analysis, in 2009 a Polk County Circuit judge vacated Cannon’s original conviction. Incidentally it was now apparent that police involved in the original trial had hired Conrady to conduct the bullet analysis because the Oregan State crime lab had refused on the basis of the technique being scientifically unreliable. In order for a re-trial to take place, the original bullets were demanded in order to conduct further analysis. Polk County prosecutors insisted that the original trial evidence had been sent to the Department of Justice when Cannon had appealed his conviction, however Assistant Attorney General Susan Gerber, who had been assigned the case, claimed she had never received this evidence. It later came to light, when Gerber was suspended from her position on assault charges, that she had had the evidence all along, locked away in a filing cabinet.

In light of all of this, Cannon’s conviction was dismissed and he was released from prison. By this point he had spent over a decade behind bars. No other arrests have been made in relation to the murder of Kinser, Osborn and Graves.

 

References

Michigan State University National Registry of Exonerations. Philip Scott Cannon. [Available online] https://www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/casedetail.aspx?caseid=3083

Photo Credit: Polk County Itemizer Observer. Cannon retrial up to Polk DA. [Available online] http://www.polkio.com/news/2011/oct/25/cannon-retrial-up-to-polk-da